Buddhist Meditation

I am not an expert of Buddhist meditation. If one does not himself know how to sing how can be teach another? However, let us attempt to come to some understanding of the subject. Let us begin by considering two basics questions: why do we mediate? What is meditation? A sensible man takes on an assignment only after proper consideration of the means and the likely outcome. To start something without this does not seem to be wise.

If is true that people are intelligent enough without meditation. Science has developed beyond our expectations, without meditation; the computer operates much more rapidly without meditation than the human brain that built it. Why then should we concern ourselves with it? Our innumerable births have already heavily conditioned our minds; surely they do not need further conditioning even through meditation!

Why are so many people nowadays eager to mediate? In some place it is more difficult to find a good tea-shop than the centre for meditation- or at any rate, a centre where it is taught!

And what is the result of the meditation? Peoples have mediated for years and yet they seem to be as human and miserable as those who have not. It is not my purpose to discourage you from meditation, but I mention this in order to draw your attention to this fact so that you may think about it yourself. For if you find meditation a useless exercise, it is better to do something else.

My first question to those who want to mediate would be: why do you want to do it? I consider this question very important, for it is the intention which decides the entire value of meditation. If our motivation is not as pure as it should be it is our duty to correct ourselves by right thinking. Some people want to mediate because they have a disturbed mind and they want a peaceful one. They do not know what a peaceful mind is or the real nature of peace. They want a kind of peace which is restful and can produce the same effect as deep sleep; this has no connection with wisdom. They only want to be free from their restlessness, or their tiredness, or their frustration. It would be better for them to take a couple of sleeping pills for these not only work faster but produce the desired result without any effort on the part of the sufferer. Other people think of meditation as a kind of therapy for curing physical and mental diseases and although this may happen occasionally it is not its primary function. Modern medicine with its chemical remedies and techniques has far greater efficacy in this field.

Then there are those who want to gain magical powers or some sort of special powers that feed their already enlarged egos. They want something uncommon that ordinary people do not have-just to show off, in fact. For these people meditation will be an utter failure; it may even divert them into immoral activities.

We should be very careful, then, and examine our motives as to why we want to mediate. And first we want to know what meditation is. For our two questions: why do we meditate? What is meditation? – are closely interrelated.

I do not know the derivation of the English word ‘meditation’ but in Sanskritic tradition meditation has two aspects, dharana and bhavana. Dharana means to concentrate and bhavana is to ponder, think upon, investigate, analyze. So real meditation must consist of these two parts- one pointedness of mind and the power of analyzing. These two together form the totality of meditation that is Samatha and vipassana. Samatha is to concentrate and vipassana is to analyze. Analysis with total concentration makes meditation. Now, what do we concentrate on and what do we analyze? Generally, in the outer world one does not need a concentrated mind, a fullness of mind, in order to analyze.

Even the scientist, without meditating, and depending only on outer instruments, has analyzed the material world with great skill. But he has left untouched the inner self. The truth of the inner side of things cannot be explored by scientific methods or equipment. The existence and the importance of the spiritual dimension are gaining more acknowledgements in the present day. Earlier, when science was developing, most people thought that spiritual things and the inner wisdoms were irrelevant. But now scientists themselves are realizing that there is still something to be discovered and that perhaps it can only be done by some method which is beyond materialism. Meditation is concentration and reflection and these must be inward, not outward. Meditation is the instrument that we need in order to go inside to search for that which is yet beyond ourselves.

Method of meditation are to be found in most religious writings. The Buddhist have no special methods which could be described as purely Buddhist. But they have several insights that are specifically their own: for instance on the nature of Samatha or calmness of mind, and of vipassana or alertness of mind. But the techniques are derived from those known in the Samkhya, Vedanta and other Hindu schools of philosophy, and perhaps in other religions which teach mediation.

Our mind, as it is, is really not qualified or equipped to search into the innermost depths of ourselves. We have been given guide-lines as to how to search for things outside ourselves but hardly any directions have been given on how to look inwards. We have to train ourselves to look inside and the only way to achieve this is through meditation. In order to meditate, the mind should be channeled; otherwise it will not have the power to concentrate on one object. In that case, what we often imagine to be meditation is not meditation at all. Our indisciplined mind is like a candle flame which flickers in the wind. Objects distorted by such a light seem to be vibrating and cannot be clearly distinguished by the eyes. Even a few moments of meditation make one realize how quickly the mind moves from one object to another and how disturbed it is by many causes such as emotions and memories. The mind resembles a crowded street in which cars, motor cycles, bicycles and people are moving. When we are in crowd we are aware only of the rush and fuss around us, but if we look down from the top floor of a tall building we shall see how large the crowd is and how numerous the people. Similarly, when the mind is full of disturbance and obstructions we do not notice how fickle it is. When we start to meditate and are able to detach ourselves we become aware how crowded and restless the mind is. The mind of the ordinary people is usually fragmented and divided, full of thoughts and illusions. In this condition concentration is absolutely impossible. Thus, in order to look inwards, so that we come to know our inner selves better, the mind must be trained in concentration.

The first step in meditation, then, is to train the mind to concentrate on one point, one object, for a definite period of time. This is in order to overcome the limitation of our present mind which can neither concentrate fully on one object nor remain concentrated even for a little while. For example, while we are talking, our mind should be fully concentrated on the subject under discussion. But actually, only a part of it is attending to what is being said for at the same time we hear the sound of a bird outside and notice the movement of the people about us. The mind, then, is doing several things at the same time such as listening, seeing and speaking. This shows clearly that it is seldom able to concentrate on one point only, although sometimes the opposite is true. For instance, it may happen that when we are looking at a beautiful picture or at a sunset, we become so absorbed in it that we fail to hear that somebody is speaking to us. This kind of concentration, however, usually lasts for a few seconds only and then all is gone again.

The first step in meditation, then, is to train the mind to concentrate on one point without being distracted or disturbed. But we shall soon notice that due to the intense and continual exercises in concentrations, we are apt to lose our ability to analyze and think. It is very important not to do this because, while concentration is the first step in meditation, thinking, pondering and analyzing is the second step. It is on these vital activities that meditation is built, namely, one pointed concentration on a subject or object, and the retention of the ability during concentration to see clearly and ponder its many aspects. If this is understood we shall understand what the Buddhists mean by meditation.

Now we shall go back to the reason for meditation. Meditation will only be useful and wroth while if we are really serious about finding ourselves, or if we are, in Buddhist terminology, ‘searching for our selflessness’ or ‘searching for that which is illusive within’. If we are in earnest to find that truth-not for our own satisfaction, but in order to help other people who have not found it yet-then it is well worthwhile to study meditation and to practice it. But if our motivation is not pure, meditation will be waste of time for it cannot be used to serve any worldly aims such as the obtaining of pleasure or power.

The world is full of wretchedness. Nobody can deny it. Our bodies are subject to decay, disease, pain, and death. And there are the miseries of the world such as poverty, inequality, hatred. Every single person whether well known or unknown, rich or poor, young or old, carries his own bundle of misery-his body to which he bound by karma. A sensible person should not only recognize the immense misery in the world but should also enquire into its cause. According to Buddhist doctrine, misery is caused by karma, which is conditioned by pleasure, the product of an impure mind. This impure mind is created by the illusion of the self, avidya or ignorance. The illusion of self can only be eradicated by prajnaa (wisdom) or the understanding achieved through Samadhi, the concentrated mind. And the concentrated mind can only be achieved if we have observed sila, the moral or the righteous way of life. Therefore, the entire Buddhist teaching is summarized in trisiksa, the three doctrines. These are the doctrine of sila or the righteous way of life; samadhi or concentration of mind; and prajnaa or wisdom. It is clear from this that meditation becomes indispensible for anybody who tries to achieve right understanding of truth, the realization of truth, the realization of selflessness or of self as it is. Thus, we should meditate in order to develop our mind and attain an insight into the inner nature of man. We must have a fully concentrated mind, which we shall achieve through right meditation. This has two aspects: samatha or calmness of mind and vipassana or the faculty of analysis.

Having defined meditation and discovered why we wish to meditate, we might know look at our preparation of meditation, we might now look at our preparation for meditation. Preparation is very important; it can neither be overlooked nor neglected. Buddhist meditation is in three stages. The first stage is to study to hear from your instructors and seniors, to study books and discuss your findings. Sruti, to hear (understanding by hearing), is the first stage. This is followed by second stage, which is vicara, to ponder, to think over what has been heard and whatever explanations you have received. Then you have to consider carefully whether the methods you are about to use are correct and are suitable for your own particular condition. Only then, when your mind is made up and you are definite about the methods you are going to use, can you go on to the third stage which is bhavana, to meditate.

There are also certain conditions, which are absolutely necessary for a beginner. For instance, he must have a suitable place to live in. it must be calm and quiet, a place where he can sit without fear of intrusion, without mental stress or uneasiness, conscious or unconscious, for fear of any kind is the end of meditation. It should also be reasonably near to the market or shops so that he may easily obtain his food, clothing, medicine or other necessities. In the early stages, an isolated place is not advisable. To have to travel for miles to a doctor would be waste of time which the meditator cannot afford, especially at the beginning of his enterprise.

Our lives should be clean, physically and specially, morally. We must be content to live a simple life, subduing our desires for luxury. We must stop thinking about obtaining better, more or newer gadgets and other goods, because all these thoughts disturb and distract the mind. We should learn to be satisfied with what we have, whether it be food, clothing, or the place we live in. The fully advanced mediator can do as he wishes, but it is best for beginner to turn away from outer objects altogether such as watching television, going to the cinema reading newspapers, or moving through busy streets.

In order to further curb and quite the mind we should give attention to our daily routine. This means rising, eating, sleeping and so on, following a strict time table. We must also eat simple food in moderation, preferably pure vegetarian. Finally it is important to living a clean life means that the livelihood of the aspiring meditator should never be involved with immoral earnings. A person who has been comfortably settled in one place for a while and has seriously practiced this routine should find that his body and mind have largely calmed down.

From what has been said, it will be seen why a busy executive or, for that matter, any busy person living a hectic life, attending public meetings, rushing from here to there and working at all hours, will not be able to prepare to meditation. The necessary calming down is not achieved through meditation, but by living an ordinary routine life. Even technicians and scholars will find it difficult to start meditation, as meditation and research do not combine well together in the beginning, certainly not for the first three to six months or so. However, if the technicians and scholars are advanced mediators they should not have difficulty whatever in doing their work and mediating as well. But to start with it is better to give up all those varied activities that are not helpful to one who wants to practice concentration. Moreover, it is advisable for the beginner to possess only a few books and these should deal with the subject of meditation only. Besides his books it is also to his advantage to have a teacher or congenial friends so that if any doubt arises about the methods he is using, or the way in which he trying to improve his meditation, he can discuss it with him.

When all the above preparations are completed the aspirant should review his entire life. He must examine again his intentions, his understanding of what meditation is, and why it is he wants to meditate, because he must decide either to give up his desire to meditate, or to go in for short period of meditation only. He also must re-examine his environment and the preparation he has made. It cannot be emphasized too often that meditation is not easy and can often become dangerous, leading the slipshod into an abnormal life. All these precautions should therefore be taken by those who wish to enter into a serious meditative life, who are in earnest about wanting to achieve a more spiritual way of life and to search for truth.

If a person is not in a position to undertake protracted and regular meditation, he should take a limited course and that will also help him to a great extent. He could go into a retreat of from a few days to several months. It is important that he should decide on the exact duration of such a course so that there will no uncertainly about it in his mind. The curriculum should be properly planned and the programme should be drawn up so that at that the end the participant will have achieved something, such as perhaps a better understanding of meditation.

After having attended two or three courses the meditator will perhaps be able to start out on his own and undertake a little longer meditation without a constant help of a teacher. However, it must be understood that the beginner needs a great deal of help in the early stages of his development, notwithstanding his own studies or the instructions he has received from his teacher, or how confident he may be about the methods he is using. It is therefore advised that the aspirant should discuss his progress with his teacher or fellow aspirants from time to time, because a wrong method of meditation adopted at the beginning and practised for a lengthy period may prove harmful.

Questions and Answers

Q. You spoke about clarity and alertness of the mind and also about concentrations and analysis. What do you mean when you speak about analysis as a part of meditation? I ask this because you started by saying that the mind is crowded with so many thoughts and that analysis is an activity of thought. Therefore, does not the process of analysis crowd the mind with more thoughts?

A. That is a very important question and it has been discussed at length in the Buddhist sastras. The Buddhist acaras (techniques) may be divided into two parts. The first one is vipassana, to think, to analyze, and the second part is samatha, to concentrate. Many acaryas or teachers recommend samatha (concentration) only, for meditation, and do not refer to vipassana, the process of analysis. But there are also well known acaryas who advocate that the two aspects should go together in meditation. Samatha is the calming down and concentration of the mind, while vipassana, or analyzing is a process of thought. In the ordinary mind this process is neither concentrated nor fully channelled, while the analyzing process of thoughts during meditation is fully concentrated nor fully chanelled. Thought will jump from subject to subject while it is under discipline. Moreover, the meditator chooses only one thought for his analysis and in this context analysis means the searching of the self to find out whether it is an entity or a projection of the mind, whether its nature is interdependence and ‘avoidance of is-ness’. Unless we analyze and ponder this we cannot find truth. In the first stage, the realization of truth can only be reached by anumana, inference. Anumana is, of course, thought, but when one progresses in meditation, anumana or inference, becomes less and less necessary. Thus the part which thought plays in the meditative process gradually diminishes until it fades out completely when one obtains pratyaksha or direct realization. The process of thought is now not crowded but systematic and one- pointed, as there is only one subject to be analysed. Therefore, with full concentration of the mind, analyzing will be sharp and forceful. In this way the process of thoughts is used to eliminate the thought processes.

Q. What about the use of pranayama in meditation?

A. pranayama is commonly known in Buddhism as concentration on the breath. But the pranayama prescribed in Hindu yoga and the breathing traditions in Buddhism are for different purposes. In Buddhist meditation we do not call it pranayama. We just count the breath as it goes in and out of the nostrils and we concentrate at the same time on the tip of the nose. Breathing has an effect on the physical body and this in turn helps us to bring the mind under control. In Mahayana Buddhism many beginners start their meditation by concentrating on their breathing instead of on an outer object, and this concentration on the breath purifies the body as well as mind.

Q. What is the role of mantras in meditation?

A. Mantras are sometimes very useful in the higher stages of meditation. In Buddhism, they are only used in tantric meditation, not in ordinary meditation. Meditation normally begins with the training of the mind. Tantric meditation however begins with the combined development of mind, body and speech, all three together. This being the case, mantras (involving speech) are indispensable.

 

LECTURE 2

There are several dozen different schools of meditation in Tibet, each with a different tradition and approach. It is not necessary to discuss them all. Instead, It is important for us to be clear minded, we shall consider one tradition only namely the Vijnanavada school of Mahayana Buddhism, which was founded by teacher Asanga. This, and the Madhyamika School, is the best known school of Mahayana Buddhism. Together they represent the two aspects of the prajna-paramita sutra. Asanga commented mainly on the marga, or meditational side, while the great teacher Nagarjuna emphasized in his commentaries the darsana or philosophical aspect of it.

The Asanga School of meditation was very popular in Tibet and had many followers. It has come down to us through uninterrupted line of gurus, enriched by oral teachings, invaluable treatises and commentaries of such great men as Acarya Vasubandhu, Santaraksita, Kamalasila and Tson-Kha-Pa. It is the method of meditation as given in the writings of these Acaryas that we shall study.

Let us now continue with the subject of preparation for meditation. Since correct preparation is the very foundation of meditation we shall study it stage by stage.

Although there are some other systems that are less demanding, in this tradition there are no short-cuts, no relaxations or concessions as regards moral discipline. It is very strict about physical and verbal disciplines and expects the student to be really serious about his approach to meditation, because until he has disciplined himself in body and speech he will not be able to discipline his mind. The accepted method of discipline in this school covers three stages.

1. Kaya, discipline of the physical body

2. Vaka, discipline of speech

3. Citta, discipline of the mind.

Thus, in order to discipline the mind we must start with disciplining the physical body and then the speech. After these have been fully brought under control we find that the mind can be disciplined easily.

The Buddhist way of life is based on the Noble Eightfold Path. This path consists of the disciplines in the above three stages. Right action, right intention, and right livelihood together constitute the moral part of life or sila, while right effort and right mindfulness are the components of Samadhi. A right outlook on life result in prajna. Right action, right intention and right livelihood should be observed in the first stage of one’s preparation for meditation, Samadhi and prajna. If the intention is right, all else can be achieved.

Anything started with a wrong intention will be wrong however good the ensuing action appears to be. Similarly with meditation also; if the intention is wrong, impure and selfish in nature, although we may use a good method, all that follows will only strengthen and the self and the result will not be right. A good intention, then, must be established at the very beginning and then we must discipline body, speech and mind. So, right action, right speech, and right livelihood must be practiced at the second stage of our preparation.

Most of our activities are involved in one way or another with our livelihood and so it is necessary to examine our way of life with care. It include all the activities we engage in such as earning money and spending it, as well as simple thing like cooking, eating, sleeping, and the way in which we react to others. Naturally, we are concerned about how to earn a satisfactory livelihood but our efforts to do so can lead us into immoral activities. Most of the crime of which we hear or read in the papers arise from the desire for money. Sometimes it is very difficult to follow right livelihood under the present conditions of the society. Even a person who is normally honest may at times find himself tempted to dishonesty, or to engage in wrongful business activities. These things happen. But if we look at ourselves closely and carefully, we shall find that we do not always detect our own mistakes or wrong-doings, or if we do there is always some reason to excuse ourselves.

It is a good exercise to scrutinize our actions honestly and sincerely. Look at ourselves when, for instance, we make a train journey, or when we receive our salary, or when we are using special privileges. Can we say that we are completely clean and honest? Can we say that we earn our money by absolutely fair dealing and full application of ourselves to the work? Our means of livelihood may be clean and there may be no dishonesty or wrongful earnings. But if we look at our work carefully we may come to see that a number of wrongful actions are involved in it. For example, we are expected to work for a certain period of time every day. We may indeed stay in the office for the full number of hours but, looking closely at what happens during these hours, we may find that a fair amount of time was not spent on the particular job we are supposed to do. Then there is the question of the use of the office stationery. How many times, unconsciously perhaps, do we put office paper, or pins, or envelopes to our own personal use? Similarly, what about the use of the staff car? There are rules about its use but we often find that these instructions are not always followed and that the car is booked for trip which, strictly speaking, it should not have been. Similarly, the office telephone is meant to be used for the office business but in fact it is sometimes used for purely personal purposes. It is in ways like this that our means of livelihood become somewhat polluted.

Another example can be found in the market where, perhaps, we always try to get the best articles at the cheapest price while the seller, in his turn, tries to sell his worst products for the highest rate he can get. For many, it is almost impossible to reach the standard of perfection demanded by right livelihood, but we must keep on trying. The samskara is always changing and there is no doubt that if we try hard enough we shall be able, in the end, to achieve the highest standard.

Right speech is as difficult as right livelihood; our words do not always conform to our thoughts. Conversation has become an essential part of our society. It is very difficult to keep our speech clean; we find that about half our usual conversation arises out of conformity to social customs. This is the reason why, in the old days, teachers chose the path of silence and kept a lifelong vow not to speak because they realized how much impurity can be involved in speech. There are many occasions when our educated, civilized society would regard it as most impolite if we were to tell the truth, and so we have to twist our speech a little. Sometimes, when this twisting is done with good intention, it may not be too bad, but often the good intention is lacking. For example, let us take a person who usually rises late in the morning. One day he is disturbed by somebody who comes to see him early in the morning. This irritates him, but nevertheless he gets up and meets the visitor with a smile on his face, saying: ‘I am happy to see you. ‘Saying what he really thought would be regarded as most impolite, but, at the same time, what he said was utterly untrue. In like manner, according to our custom, we have to carry on from morning to night and artificial and formal conversation-whether we are in street, the market place, in a bus, or attending a meeting- for the sake of being regarded as a civilized and well-manner person. It was for this reason that the ancient Acharyas said that the only person who speaks the truth is a madman because he always says whatever he thinks!

Next comes to purity of right action. We act and react very often totally automatically or involuntarily. Our thoughts are so conditioned, our speech is swayed by the instant reactions of our mind, that much of our action is an involuntarily expression of the condition of the mind. For instance, how many actions do we perform thoughtlessly and without attention? And even if we do give them some consideration and thought they are still often wrong. Therefore, the attainment of the control by purification of the body, speech and action is an absolute prerequisite before we can start to discipline and control the mind, otherwise the difficulties we face are too numerous and varied and it would be impossible to cope with them all at once.

If a person has succeeded in disciplining his actions and speech and in engaging in right livelihood, he has become quite a spiritual being without the use of meditation. Meditation is really not absolutely necessary if one is able to keep oneself strictly to this discipline: this manner of life so uplifts a man that it is well worth while to reach such a standard, if not in this life then perhaps in the next. The best thing for us is to keep on trying, even if we fail now and then. If we fall, we must get up and push on, aiming at the same goal.

Right livelihood, right speech, right action and, first of all, right intention are the four disciplines which have to be implemented in order to prepare the ground for meditation, while discipline of body and speech are specially required in order to discipline the mind. Besides all this, quietness and nearness to nature are very helpful, not only for meditating, but also to prepare to ourselves to general. If we live in quite place it will be much easier to practice right action, right livelihood, right speech, right intention. Noises create the worst kind of disturbance for the mind. Spiritual music (bhajans) and prayers can be used either at the beginning in order to build up a religious atmosphere, or at the end of the practice, but the beginner is advised not to use either of these practices during his meditation for they do not help concentration. At a later stage, however, concentration on sound and listening also becomes a part of meditation, but this is not easy.

The next step in meditation is the practice of asanas or outward postures. Everybody knows about them for they are common to all systems of meditation. The disciplines of mind and body are very much correlated, for the mind functions through the body and brain. In Vajrayana, they begin with control of the physical body and thus they control the mind and still its movement. However, it is highly intricate and secret system and only a few selected people are able to follow it. The body is the vehicle of the mind. If we compare the body to a car, we can see the relationship clearly. If the car stops (if the body is brought under control), the driver (the mind) comes automatically to a halt also. Therefore, as the discipline of the mind is of great importance so is the use of good posture. The postures or asanas which are generally advised for meditation may not suit everyone and every person should find out for himself which sitting posture suits him best. There are, however, a few basic principles, which should be adhered to. First, during meditation, whether we sit on the floor, on a chair, or whether we stand or move around, our spine should be kept absolutely straight. We must watch this carefully because many of us have the habit of stooping a little while sitting or standing. There may also be a few people who are not physically able to keep their spine straight and these will have some difficulties to overcome at the beginning, but I am sure that if they practice regularly they will be to sit straight. Then, it is also essential that our breath should be normal, which means that our body must be relaxed.

We should never start to meditate when we are in tense or tired. People who have reached a higher stage in meditation can meditate while running, driving, and swimming- in fact they can meditate under any circumstances. But in the beginning we should strictly adhere to the conditions laid down in order to make practice easier. The most common posture is the one where we sit on the floor on a mattress or on a cushion, which is slightly higher at the back than in the front. We can make this by folding a blanket into a slightly slanted position. The slant makes it easier for us to keep a straight back and it is more comfortable for those who wish to sit for a long time. However, many people are accustomed to sitting on a chair and it may be unsuitable for them to sit on the floor with their legs crossed. That is alright: it is not a new method; in ancient time there were also those who sat in chairs while meditating. The chair should not be too soft so that we sink down in it. It should have a firm seat on which we can sit with a straight back our feet resting comfortably on the floor. If we wish, we can also meditate while walking slowly and concentrating on our steps.

In any case, the one condition which prevails in all these positions is to keep the back straight. The position which people often find very difficult to master is the Vajra-paryanka Asana. This is the Buddha posture where the legs are crossed so that the feet rest upon the upper portion of the thighs, the soles turned upwards, the right leg being on the outside. It is useless to strain yourself in order to force the legs into this position. The reason for sitting cross- legged is to make it possible to mediate for a prolonged period, but if you have to strain yourself, you will feel pain within five or six minutes. So do not worry about adopting a particular position. If you want to sit cross legged on the floor, do it in a way that is easy and normal for yourself. The soles of the feet do not have to turn upwards if you cannot do it, but the spine should be straight, the head slightly bent forward and the hands should be resting comfortably either on the knees or in your lap.

There are also a number of positions recommended for the hands. One often used in Tibet is to place the left hand in one’s lap and the right hand on it. The palms of both hands should be turned up with the tips of the thumbs touching each other. Another is to put the left hand in your lap with the palm up and rest in the right hand, palm down, on it. This is the posture of the humanity. Again, another is to rest the hands on the knees, and let the fingertips just touch the floor. Or the hands are laid down in one’s lap, the thumb of each pressed against the fingers. But this position is not comfortable and should not be used if one wishes to meditate for a longer period. The following position of the hands is an aid for anyone who wishes to slowly straighten the spine; it is therefore not a posture but a help. Fold the thumbs inside the hands and then press the hands in the groin.

In former days, students did not start to meditate straightaway, but practiced first all the different postures for several weeks to find out which suited them. So, first of all, find that posture-sitting, standing or moving about-which is most suitable for comfortable meditation. Similarly, some hand postures may suit some mediators more than others; some may be more useful for a person sitting in a chair while others are more suitable for those who are sitting on the floor.

The next important point to be discussed is the eyes. In the Buddhist meditation system it is never recommended to close the eyes during meditation. Many people in beginning may feel that they must keep their eyes closed, but shutting the eyes or ears does not help one to concentrate better. If the half open eyes prevent us from concentrating, we may darken the room, but the eyes should not be closed. They should be looking down in such a way that the edge of the nose is just in view. But do not stare at your nose, because that is not good and will give you a pain in the eyes. You should look down effortlessly in such a manner that the tip of your nose is vaguely visible. Then, the mouth and teeth should be considered. The teeth should not be clenched, neither should the mouth be open. Retain throughout a relaxed and natural condition of the muscles and make yourself comfortable in the meditation position you have chosen. If you do that, your breathing will be normal and quiet and this is important. If it is not, you should wait until it is before you start your concentration. Now after sitting quietly in the meditation posture for one or two minutes, begin to concentrate on your breathing by counting the breath going in and out for at least twenty one times. This exercise will put the whole of your bodily system in order. Later on, you can start concentrating on the object of your choice.

Breathing should always be through the nose. Breathe out slowly, breath in slowly, and do not hold the breath beyond what you are normally used to. Mentally count: ‘ I am breathing out…..and I am breathing in… that is one; ‘ I am breathing out…..and I am breathing in… that is two’ and so forth. This exercise is not real concentration but rather an accurate following of your breathing pattern. But it will release you from the contact with the outer world; that is to say, you will forget the other things you had in your mind because your thought is now wholly on counting the breath. In this manner you clear the way, or make a track for the mind, which leads to concentration. You may, if you find it helpful, count the breath a hundred times or four hundred times. In any case, this exercise will give you immediate relief from mental tension and physical strain and will therefore calm your mind and body. Today, this particular exercise is used by many people solely for the purpose of relaxation. They lie down or sit in a chair and watch their breathing until it has gained, or regained, its normal pattern; then they start counting it and that refreshes them. It is necessary for the beginner to do this exercise before he starts his concentration.

We have touched on just a few of the prescribed conditions- the preliminary steps- leading to meditation. Once again I must stress the importance of living a benevolent life- with or without meditation-always keeping the intention pure, and speech, action and livelihood clean. Anybody who achieves this standard of living is a noble man, whether he meditates or not. Always, at the base of all lies our intention. If we could constantly examine ourselves at every step we take we would definitely find a great improvement in our life after only a month or so.

Many people think that all this is only a theory because, they say, the conditions in the world are such that we could not be able to survive if we were to be one hundred percent honest. I personally do not agree with this statement but you will have to find out for yourselves whether it is true or not, and you can only do so if you earnestly try to live the life.

If we live a clean life and maintain this style of living over a certain period we shall find that our surroundings and circumstances will yield to us and that those elements which were originally, perhaps, of a contrary nature will change so that they now harmonize with the way we live. If we have the will to try it, it will be worthwhile to carry out this experiment at least once or twice in our lives, and we shall find that somehow we receive encouragement to continue. In this way, as we become purer, we shall little by little improve our lives so that they become easier for us and we shall find fewer conflicts and contradictions obstructing our way. This will strengthen the mind and give it more stability.

These practices are not mere theories; they should be an integral part of our daily life. Besides, what is the use of the meditation if we do not care to practice the preliminary steps? Meditation by itself cannot transform us all of a sudden. We have to set ourselves a task and adhere to it, proceeding step by step. If we want to travel, we must depend on the vehicle, but once we arrive we do not remain in vehicle. It had only a temporary use for us and now it has served its purpose. We leave it and go straight ahead. Similarly, all who aspire to meditate must depend on many prescribed rules, exercise and conditions which have been tested from ancient times and proved to be absolutely necessary as preliminaries to meditation. The beginner should adhere strictly to them but alter on he can leave them behind. And it may perhaps be good to remember that wise men have said that a whole life spent only in preparation is very worthwhile.

QUESTION AND ANSWERS

Q. You mention at the beginning the marga side and the darsana side of the prajna-paramita sutra. The marga aspect was commented upon by Asanga and seems to be a method of meditation. The darsana side, you said, was commented upon Nagarjuna. Is the drasana aspect also a method of meditation?

A. Darsana means philosophy. The Buddhist tradition consists of two parts: one part is meditation and the other philosophy. The philosophical part was expounded by Nagarjuna and the meditation part by Asanga who was regarded as the expert in that particular field.

Q. You said that the eyes should not be closed during meditation. I personally find it more comfortable to close them?

A. If you find it uncomfortable or perhaps impossible to meditate with your eyes open, then, in order to help yourself in the beginning and to avoid closing the eyes, you can make the room dark. Closing the eyes during meditation is not recommended.

Q. Is keeping the eyes open not prescribed to prevent one from going to sleep?

A. That may, be of course, one reason. But the principle behind this rule is that meditating with closed eyes (which may be easier for a beginner) disturbs the meditator when he reaches a more advanced stage.

Q. Must one keep the eye completely open or half closed?

A. One just looks down on the floor, right in front of one. You may call that having the eyes half closed. Do not look into the distance when you are meditating.

Q. When you keep your eyes open, do you focus them?

A. No, do not focus the eyes, because that will strain and tire them. Just keep the eyes half open without trying to look and direct them downwards on the floor in front of you.

Q. Would you say that a different effect is produced on the mind by keeping the eyes open or closed?

A. Yes, there is. As I mentioned before, if you start meditating with your eyes closed, you shut yourself off from seeing things and therefore it will be less difficult to achieve concentration. But then, if for some reason your eyes open during meditation, you will be disturbed. That is why it has been recommended to meditators to keep their sense organs awake and open.

Q. You said that if one’s purity increases, the environment will yield to one. Would you please enlarge on that?

A. You will find that there is nearly always a struggle between the individual and his environment. If the environment affects or influences a person, then that person is weak. A person who is able to make his own environment is strong. Great people who live in a bad environment often lift the environment up by their mere presence and turn it into a good place. In the case, the environment has yield because the purity of the person which is radiating out from him influences the environment and it is elevated by those vibrations. If one is pure enough. I am sure that one can cope with the problem of one’s environment; otherwise one will find it difficult.

Q. I understand all that you have said and it is obvious that one has to reach high standard of purity. But what is pure and what is impure? There seem to be no hard and fast rules. It is difficult to decide what would be the pure and correct action to take at a particular time.

A. Yes, it can be a problem. According to Buddhist teachings, whether an action is pure or impure, right or wrong, is measured by its violence or non violence. Any action which directly or indirectly causes harm or violence to any sentient being must be considered impure. An action which brings no harm to any sentient being is regarded as a normal action. An action which is helpful or beneficial, directly or indirectly, is considered to be a pure and right act.

Q. Shall I speak the truth to someone when I know that it will hurt him? Would not this also be an act of violence?

A. This is often difficult to judge. If by hurting someone you are indirectly helping him, then you should hurt him. But if it is not going to help him, you should avoid it. Every case has to be judge on its own merit; if your intention is correct and pure, your judgment will be correct and also your speech. It may happen occasionally that by not speaking the truth you can help a person. That is quite all right, too, and the proper thing to do. Take the case of a person being pursued by another with intent to kill him. You may be there and see the fugitive disappearing into a certain house. The pursuer, who has lost track of his victim, comes to you and asks you whether you saw him and if you did, where did he go? Would you tell the killer the truth? It is a matter of discretion. If one’s intention is pure and selfless, wisdom will be achieved sooner or later.

LECTURE 5

If a person continues with his practice of concentration certain changes will take place in his body and, later on, in his mind also. These changes will come about quickly and easily in the case of some meditators, while in others they come only after much effort and practice. This is so because they depend on many factors such as the meditator’s background, his karma, the quality of his practice, and so forth. But any person who continually practices concentration and who does not make any basic mistakes ought to achieve good results sooner or later.

This change is first noticed in the body because the superficial mind used by ordinary people, which is inclined to be gross (sthula), depends for its function on the body. The subtle mind, however, does not depend on the body at all. Beginners mediate with the gross mind, and the subtle mind does not function in the early stages of meditation. However, as the aspirant gains control over his gross mind and brings it to a standstill through continual practice in one pointed concentration on a particular object, he creates a change in his body. This is because when mind is one pointed, the flow of the vital airs in the body is brought under control. In the ordinary state, when the mind is scattered, the vital airs which carry the subtle forces are in disorder and this affects not only the body but the mind. Therefore, by controlling the mind, the body is also brought into a state of harmony. When the meditator reaches this stage, he feels a pleasant sensation throughout his body. This pleasant feeling, or lightness, which enables the meditator to handle his body with much great ease, is often mistaken as an achievement and people frequently stop here, wallowing in this pleasant feeling. This may lead to the meditator losing everything that he gained with so much effort. The feeling of lightness in the body is a sign that a certain progress has been made and that one is coming near to the achievement of real meditation; it is not a result in itself. Therefore, when the meditator feels his body growing lighter he should not allow his mind to be scattered. On the contrary, he should intensify his one pointed concentration, meditation and recollectedness. Then, after about a week, the pleasant feeling in his body will settle down. He may feel that it is decreasing but in fact it is not. He is gaining control over the situation and therefore his mind is not disturbed by his feelings.

Almost directly following on this pleasant bodily feeling comes an indescribable feeling of containment and happiness in the mind. This feeling does not come during meditation but after it. This sensation creates another problem because once more the meditator is inclined to hold on to it. But he must be firm and break off his meditation and the proper time and have some leisure when he can go out for a walk, talk to people, listen to music and so on. In this way, he will prevent himself from ‘drowing’ in meditation in order to experience after-effects of contentment. When he is firm with himself- this feeling of happiness of mind will also settle down.

One can clearly see that the pleasant feeling of the body combined with sense of happiness in the mind together form a yoke. In Sankrit, yoga means a harminous combination of two things, which in this case are body and mind concentration under such conditions is called samatha because all disorderly functions and scattering of mind have now been pacified and eliminated.

When the mind and body are thus in harmony and the meditator directs his mind on to a material object for concentration, he will experience a sort of Samadhi. At present, we have no equanimity of mind necessary to concentrate on object exactly as they are, because our mind is always active and therefore constantly distorts things. Perhaps without having achieved samadhi. There is no way of perceiving anything as it is in reality.

The first part of the word, sama in Samadhi, denotes equality. ‘Equality’ means in this case, that the content of the object and that of the mind should be equal. ‘Equality’ and ‘harmony’ can exist even between pot and its lid at the place of union, but if the lid does not fit the pot exactly there is neither equality nor harmony between them. Similarly, there should also be equality between the known and the knower, or the mind. But at present, due to the way in which the mind works, there is disorder in that area. For example, the mind works through the eyes. Sight is supposed to perceive the object directly and present it without distortion to the mind. But does it? Is the colour, which we perceive, for instance, always exactly correct? And when we look at a round shape, which is about a hundred meters away, do we see it in its true size? Distance reduces the clarity of colour and shape and so the object gradually changes according to the distance and the acuteness of our eyesight. So, by the time the image touches the field of our perception we see something different. The same could be said when an object is placed so near to a person that his eyes cannot perceive it properly. Thus, because the mind distorts, there is an inequality between the mind and the object.

When the mind works through the ears the same thing applies. If someone speaks from a great distance, depending on the distance and our ability to hear, we either hear distorted words or only vague sounds. Naturally, different people hear different distortions. However, if the distant speaker comes nearer the reception becomes clearer, and when he is very near there should no longer be any distortion. But if thought comes in when one is in the process of listening, or looking at a distant object, there is a great deal of distortion and a wrong apprehension of the spoken word or perception of the object.

When the state of samatha has been achieved our minds are able to concentrate on the object with great equanimity and perceive it exactly as it is with the least distortion. But this achievement does not mean that we have reached absolutely reality or have realized the ultimate truth of the phenomenon. We have to go much further if we want to arrive at that point. But what has been achieved is a power of mind which can concentrate on an object with great equanimity. When samatha has been achieved the meditator can greatly reduce his efforts at concentration for the danger of scattering of the mind or slow sinking down of the mind has now been overcome. Also, once the meditator has gone through the process of harmonizing his mind and body he no longer needs to keep his powers of recollectedness and recognition on the alert. This can all be dropped because these disturbances will not occur again. Moreover, he will also find that no inconvience, such as tiredness of the body stiffness in the legs, will arise while pracitising meditation, for the body will have learned to adjust itself and will make no demands to be fed or to be exercised at a certain time. It is now capable of doing any work for any length of time.

The achievement of samatha is indeed a landmark in meditation. We must not forget however that it is not the ultimate goal; it is the point from which real meditation starts. Until its achievement we are only training our minds to concentrate without being disturbed by thought, or getting into the sinking condition. Eventually, the serious person perseveres with his meditation for the sake of meditation only and enters into the eight types of Samadhi; that is to say the four of rupa Samadhi and the four types of nirupadhi Samadhi; it is a real luxury for the meditator to explore these different grades of Samadhi. But let us not go too far ahead; let us stay with the meditator who has achieved samatha and who is about to explore the first stage of rupa samadhi.

The meditator has achieved a harmonious relationship between his body and mind. When he begin to concentrate his minds, his body immediately co-operate. In the beginning, when a person is trying to achieve Samadhi, thought and discrimination are needed to probe to into certain aspects of, for instance, contemplation. Thought is needed to produce a picture of the object he is concentrating on and discrimination is needed to assess whether he is mediating rightly or wrongly, and whether the picture he has made is clear or not. The use of thought and discrimination are thus indispensible for the beginner before he enters Samadhi and directly after he comes out of it. But when he develops more spiritually and meditates for the pleasure of mediating there are certain higher states to be achieved all of which are prescribed in the sastras.

The sastras mention three different realms. The first is the realm of kama which is ordinary stage in which most people live. The second is that of rupa which is the stage of form. The third is the stage of nirupadhi, the realm of the formless, or the realm beyond form.

The mind in the stage of kama is the ordinary uncontrolled mind. When samadhi has been achieved (that is to say the first stage of rupa Samadhi) the mind has become much more refined and the meditator finds himself in a state of peace. If he has been meditating at this stage for a while he finds that there is no need for thought or discrimination. So he may now eliminate these and develop a Samadhi without them. When he has achieved this second stage he neither needs thought to get into Samadhi or to get out of it. Before Samadhi, during Samadhi, and while coming out of it, the meditator remains without thoughts.

After the cessation of thought, the feeling of happiness that remains in the mind of the meditator becomes a disturbance for he finds the state of Samadhi more peaceful without the additional feeling of happiness. Therefore the meditator will set out to eliminate it. The cessation of happiness can be achieved by practicing either samatha or Samadhi and when the meditator has successfully accomplished it he will find himself in a neutral state which in neither happy nor unhappy. This is the third realm of rupa Samadhi; it is much higher and more peaceful than the stage of samatha.

When this mental state of happiness has ceased, the meditator will notice that there remains one more disturbing factor. This is caused by pleasurable sensation in the body (sukha vedana) which has a disquieting effect on him. So, finally the meditator takes this disturbance also in hand and gets rid of it. When this feeling has also subsided to a neutral point (upeksa) where there is neither pleasure nor unpleasantness, the meditator has achieved the fourth and highest stage of rupa Samadhi.

After this he will feel that the relationship between mind and body is not really helpful to his mediation and he will try, therefore, to make the mind completely independent of the body. In order to achieve this he has to practice the samadhi of bodylessness (nirupadhi Samadhi). Nirupadhi Samadhi is also divided into four stages. To begin with, the meditator will have to give up concentrating on any object, which has a shape, form or any other embodiment, and meditate only a unlimited emptiness. This is not the emptiness of sunyata but the unlimited emptiness of akasa (space), which the meditator takes as his subject for samadhi.

Next, after he has been meditating in this way for a while, he feels that he must no longer concentrate on a subject which seems to be outside himself and so he focuses his meditation on the limitedness of consciousness. This means that he is entering the second stage of nirupadhi Samadhi.

Again, after a while, the meditator begins to feel that even the subject of consciousness becomes an object, or a sort of embodiment, and he knows that he must eliminate the necessity of having a subject to concentrate on. So he starts to mediate on nothing, he just concentrates on nothing. This is the third stage of Nirupadhi Samadhi.

All that is left now of the practice of the meditation is concentration, but concentration itself is now a source of disturbance and he has to eliminate is also. This means that the meditator is entering the fourth or highest stage of nirupadhi Samadhi.

It is interesting to note that in order to rise higher and higher in his meditation the meditator has to gradually eliminate one refined sensation after another and one practice after another. When he has finally emptied himself completely he achieves the fourth stage of nirupadhi Samadhi. From now on the system of Samadhi will not work for the meditator because, by eliminating concentration, he relinquished the last active tendency of his mind and therefore he will need to enter into a different type of meditation.

The Buddhist and Hindu teachings about the different stages of Samadhi are similar. The technical terms may be different but the grading of the stages and the systems of elimination are, with an occasional slight variation, common to all the ancient traditions of Indian meditation. Although the meditational system may differ in the beginning they all correspond to each other in the higher stages, especially in the rupa and nirupadhi Samadhi stages.

I have briefly sketched for you, without going into complicated technical points, the progress of meditation in an orderly way, and pointed out what can be expected in the way of disturbances before achieving the higher stages. This is the general pattern up to and including the stages of samatha and Samadhi however, in the Buddhist system a meditator who has achived the stage of samatha is usually not encouraged to go ahead and luxuriate in the eight stages of the two types of Samadhi. As soon as samatha has been achieved, the meditator’s mental qualifications are held to be sufficient to develop a more spiritual kind of meditation and they therefore recommend that from the achievement of samatha onwards, the meditator should concentrate his mind on investigating the reality of things for a number of years. As mentioned previously, Buddhism always works with a two tier system of temporal or relative truth and ultimate or absolute truth. The reality of things is also divided into two tiers, namely that of the relative world and that of the absolute world. So in order to discover the reality of things or approach the absolute truth, it is recommended that meditation on the Four Noble Truths should be practiced. For Buddhist, the ultimate goal to be achieved is Nirvana, the state in which all shortcomings of the mind have ceased to exist. The method for the achievement of Nirvana is twofold, namely:

1. Prajna, the establishment of right insight, right knowledge or wisdom,

2. Upaya, the means of the method by which prajna may be established.

When samatha has been achieved, meditation on the Four Noble truths is recommended and later on sunyata, or Thatness. These meditations are designed to help root out avidya, or the state of inner misconception and ignorance. Because of ignorance, we live in samsara, the ever- changing scenes of life, and it is through perseverance with the practices of these prescribed types of meditation that the serious meditator finds that samatha becomes the method (upaya) by which prajna is established. Prajna is the knowledge which knows the Is-ness, the That-ness. It is the wisdom which knows the truth.

Every phenomenon which exists in a particular form is misunderstood by the ‘I’, the individual person. The ‘I ‘exists; we cannot deny that. But we can deny the existence of the individual as understood by us at present. The concept of ‘I’ comes to us through avidya, or ignorance, by which we perceive entity who has an independent nature of his own (svabhava). But Buddha said that nothing of this kind exists; everything exists in a field of relativity. If a thing exist as we think it does as an independent being, it should be able to know when we analyze it. But everything is not in a position to recognize this. For example, we usually think in the following manner: ‘I am’ and ‘I am here’ we casually think about ‘I’, but we do not know in which reality the image of the ‘I’ exists. We take the ‘I’ for granted and think that it exists and is not dependent on anything else. But when we begin to investigate the matter further what do we find? We say: I am here and this is my mind, but the mind is not ‘I’, this is my name, but the name is not ‘I’. And by probing deeper and deeper we learn that there is nothing in particular, which can be pointed to as being the ‘I’. This is possible because the ‘I’ is only apparently in co existence with other phenomena such as the body, the mind, one’s name, one’s actions and thoughts. Moreover, the ‘I’ is related to and dependent on all these phenomena. So, the ‘I’ exists in an interdependent way in time, space, thought and so on. On analyzing the matter, one finds that while outwardly no ‘I’ can be pinpointed, there is something of that nature in the realm of interdependence and that in fact in not realized or comprehended by the present, ordinary mind. But when a meditator has achieved the power of concentration (Samatha), he can investigate every object or phenomenon with a powerful one pointedness of mind, whch enables him to penetrate into absolute reality.

Absolutely reality, or voidness, or thatness, is called sunyata in Sanskrit. Even renowned scholars of both ancient and modern times have not understood correctly what Nargarjuna meant by his exposition of the doctrine of Voidness (Sunyata) and they mistakenly interpreted sunyata as annihilation. However, to establish truth, or even a relative truth, by negation, is quite a different matter. This system is equivalent to reaching the positive through the negative. For instance, there is a pot. We look at it and perceive it in a distorted way, as usual. What we have to do now is to negate our distorted interpretation- all our conceptions about it- and then, washed clean of our superimposed distortions, the reality of the pot as it is will appear. In a similar way, we shall perceive reality when we develop insight and wisdom.

We are always full of thoughts and words because we work through them constantly, and without them we would not be able to do anything at all. For whatever we talk and think about, we make use of images. These images are usually negative and have a distorting effect on our action as well as on our comprehension and perception. Therefore, because we conditioned, we never see anything as it really is. An untrained person is in no position to perceive accurately or precisely the details of an outer object. Similarly, when one looks into the inner realms it is very difficult to see any phenomenon without distorting it. But as we mentioned before, for a serious and advanced meditator, insight into the reality of things can be obtained through prajna because it negates all the distorting forces, which appertain to the imagination of ‘I’ and ‘mine’. Thus he succeeds in his investigation of phenomena as they really are.

So the meditator in the state of meditation divides phenomena also into two parts; one part contains all that belongs to the ‘I’ and ‘mine’ and the other part all other things. Thus a division is made between the Pudgala ( which is individual) and the Dharma ( which is everything else which does not belong to the individual) and then prajna investigates them. It investigates, on the one hand, the pudgala-nairatmya, or the essence of the centrelessness of ‘I’, or egoless-ness, and on the other, dharma-nairatmya, or the centreless-ness of all other things, the non-substantiality of things. If the meditator has realized these two truths he will keep on investigating everything and thus learn to know the truth. This is not at first by direct knowing, but by inference or anumana. He will discover that things are not as solid, as independent or as unchangeable as they appear to be. In this way the meditator acquires a knowledge or insight into a voidness (sunya) of the phenomenon. And as he continues with this sort of meditation he comes to a state where he can perceive reality without thought or distortion, with a direct vision of nairatmaya, atmalessness. This is prajna, the wisdom of insight which knows the Truths, or vipassana, the special vision into reality.

Naturally prajna itself can be meditated upon and developed further. When this stage has been achieved, a complete transformation takes place. This means that the whole world of phenomenon as perceived hitherto by ignorance and misconception will disappear and an absolutely new type of seeing and knowing will take its place. Ignorance has given place to wisdom. This is vipassana.

Questions and answers

Q. Could you tell us more about Prajna and the action of the sunyata?

A. Things are always in the realm of sunyata, but we do not see it or realize it. Prajna, enables us to look into the nature of things as they exist.

Q. Can one say that Prajna is awareness of emptiness, or that it is the wisdom which is awareness of emptiness?

A. Yes, but even the word ‘emptiness’ is difficult to understand in this context because in Buddhism emptiness does not mean non-existence.

Q. Can one say that wisdom is awareness of emptiness?

A. Yes

Q. And that attributing an independent, changeless existence as the centre of anything is avidya or ignorance?

A. Yes, up to the stage of emptiness.

Q. What is the relationship between sunyata and prajna?

A. Sunyata is the object and prajna is the awareness of the object. Prajna investigates and comes to know the sunyata, which is the dissolution of the ‘I’.

Q. Are is-ness and awareness synonymous?

A. No, the is ness is the object and the awareness is an attribute of consciousness. So the consciousness is aware of the is-ness.

Q. You said that if a person lived a pure life and was sincere, he would achieve a state of harmony and wisdom with or without meditation. Then you described a method by which he might reach Nirvana. Is not living a pure life in itself meditation? I realize that living a pure life is not the work of a moment and that it may take a lifetime or even many lifetimes to achieve wisdom or realization. We need awareness in order to lead a pure life: why, then, do we really need a method to reach this sight inside? Do we really need a method, such as you described, since awareness of the pure life is itself meditation?

A. In an independent nature, a pure life and meditation go together. I do not think that at the present stage of our development (in which there is a disorderly state of mind) it is possible for us to live a pure life. Naturally, the very efforts to try to do so will purify the mind to some extent and this, in turn, will help one to lead a pure life. Purity of life and purity of mind, then, help each other and if we do not meet any obstacles these qualities will increase. It is true that our very awareness of a pure life is a part of the effort to lead it. However, methods and system of meditation are schedule to work within a time limit. This means that if a person wants to end this ordinary sort of living as soon as possible- either in this life or, if that is not possible, in other lives- he would have to follow the described methods and systems of meditation and not wait for his natural development, which would take very much longer.

Q. Does every person who is training for meditation need a guru?

A. That depends on the person. According to Buddhist training methods, an absolute beginner cannot do without an instructor; every sravaka need a guru. But for how long the instructor is needed depends entirely on the progress of the individual pupil. In a few cases, a guru is not needed. A Pratyeka Buddha in the becoming does not need a guru.